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Prefrontal cortex

"Prefrontal" redirects here. For the skull bone, see Prefrontal bone. For the reptile scale, see Prefrontal scale.
In mammalian brain anatomy, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the cerebral cortex which covers the front part of the frontal lobe. The PFC contains Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 32, 44, 45, 46, and 47.

Many authors have indicated an integral link between a person's will to live, personality, and the functions of the prefrontal cortex. This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior. The basic activity of this brain region is considered to be orchestration of thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals.

The most typical psychological term for functions carried out by the prefrontal cortex area is executive function. Executive function relates to abilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine good and bad, better and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities, working toward a defined goal, prediction of outcomes, expectation based on actions, and social "control" (the ability to suppress urges that, if not suppressed, could lead to socially unacceptable outcomes).

Frontal cortex supports concrete rule learning. More anterior regions along the rostro-caudal axis of frontal cortex support rule learning at higher levels of abstraction.

Structure

This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)
There are three possible ways to define the prefrontal cortex:

as the granular frontal cortex
as the projection zone of the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus
as that part of the frontal cortex whose electrical stimulation does not evoke movements
The prefrontal cortex has been defined based on cytoarchitectonics by the presence of a cortical granular layer IV. It is not entirely clear who first used this criterion. Many of the early cytoarchitectonic researchers restricted the use of the term prefrontal to a much smaller region of cortex including the gyrus re**us and the gyrus rostralis (Campbell, 1905; G. E. Smith, 1907; Brodmann, 1909; von Economo and Koskinas, 1925). In 1935, however, Jacobsen used the term prefrontal to distinguish granular prefrontal areas from agranular motor and premotor areas. In terms of Brodmann areas, the prefrontal cortex traditionally includes areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 24, 25, 32, 44, 45, 46, and 47; however, not all of these areas are strictly granular – 44 is dysgranular, caudal 11 and orbital 47 are agranular. The main problem with this definition is that it works well only in primates but not in nonprimates, as the latter lack a granular layer IV.

To define the prefrontal cortex as the projection zone of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus builds on the work of Rose and Woolsey who showed that this nucleus projects to anterior and ventral parts of the brain in nonprimates. Rose and Woolsey however termed this projection zone "orbitofrontal." It seems to have been Akert, who in 1964 for the first time explicitly suggested that this criterion could be used to define homologues of the prefrontal cortex in primates and nonprimates. This allowed the establishment of homologies despite the lack of a granular frontal cortex in nonprimates. The projection zone definition is still widely accepted today (e.g. Fuster), although its usefulness has been questioned. Modern tract tracing studies have shown that projections of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus are not restricted to the granular frontal cortex in primates. As a result, it was suggested to define the prefrontal cortex as the region of cortex that has stronger reciprocal connections with the mediodorsal nucleus than with any other thalamic nucleus. Uylings et al. acknowledge, however, that even with the application of this criterion it might be rather difficult to unequivocally define the prefrontal cortex..

A third definition of the prefrontal cortex is the area of frontal cortex whose electrical stimulation does not lead to observable movements. For example, in 1890 David Ferrier used the term in this sense. One complication with this definition is that the electrically "silent" frontal cortex includes both granular and non-granular areas.

"Prelimbic cortex" redirects here. For the more specific brain region, see Brodmann area 32.
The table below shows different ways to subdivide parts of the prefrontal cortex based upon Brodmann areas.

8
lateral 9
46
12
44
45
47
medial 9
medial 10
24
25
32
11
13
14
caudal
lateral
medial
orbitofrontal
dorsolateral
ventrolateral
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is composed of granular cortical areas (medial areas 9 and 10) and agranular regions (areas 24, 25, and 32) which encompasses the anterior cingulate cortex (area 24), infralimbic cortex (area 25), and prelimbic cortex (area 32).
The orbitofrontal cortex is composed of granular cortical areas (area 11) and mixed granular and agranular regions (areas 13 and 14).
The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is composed of areas 12, 44, 45, and 47.
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is composed of the lateral part of area 9 and all of area 46.
The caudal prefrontal cortex is composed of area 8, including the frontal eye fields.
The prefrontal cortex is highly interconnected with much of the brain, including extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical and brain stem sites. The dorsal prefrontal cortex is especially interconnected with brain regions involved with attention, cognition and action, while the ventral prefrontal cortex interconnects with brain regions involved with emotion. The prefrontal cortex also receives inputs from the brainstem arousal systems, and its function is particularly dependent on its neurochemical environment. Thus, there is coordination between our state of arousal and our mental state.

The medial prefrontal cortex has been implicated in the generation of slow-wave sleep (SWS), and prefrontal atrophy has been linked to decreases in SWS. Prefrontal atrophy occurs naturally as individuals age, and it has been demonstrated that older adults experience impairments in memory consolidation as their medial prefrontal cortices degrade. In monkeys, significant atrophy has been found as a result of neuroleptic or antipsychotic psychiatric medication. In older adults, instead of being transferred and stored in the neocortex during SWS, memories start to remain in the hippocampus where they were encoded, as evidenced by increased hippocampal activation compared to younger adults during recall tasks when subjects learned word associations, slept, and then were asked to recall the learned words.

Subdivisions
"Prelimbic cortex" redirects here. For the more specific brain region, see Brodmann area 32.
The table below shows different ways to subdivide parts of the prefrontal cortex based upon Brodmann areas.

8
lateral 9
46
12
44
45
47
medial 9
medial 10
24
25
32
11
13
14
caudal
lateral
medial
orbitofrontal
dorsolateral
ventrolateral
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is composed of granular cortical areas (medial areas 9 and 10) and agranular regions (areas 24, 25, and 32) which encompasses the anterior cingulate cortex (area 24), infralimbic cortex (area 25), and prelimbic cortex (area 32).
The orbitofrontal cortex is composed of granular cortical areas (area 11) and mixed granular and agranular regions (areas 13 and 14).
The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is composed of areas 12, 44, 45, and 47.
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is composed of the lateral part of area 9 and all of area 46.
The caudal prefrontal cortex is composed of area 8, including the frontal eye fields.
^ a b c d e f
Interconnections
The prefrontal cortex is highly interconnected with much of the brain, including extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical and brain stem sites. The dorsal prefrontal cortex is especially interconnected with brain regions involved with attention, cognition and action, while the ventral prefrontal cortex interconnects with brain regions involved with emotion. The prefrontal cortex also receives inputs from the brainstem arousal systems, and its function is particularly dependent on its neurochemical environment. Thus, there is coordination between our state of arousal and our mental state.

The medial prefrontal cortex has been implicated in the generation of slow-wave sleep (SWS), and prefrontal atrophy has been linked to decreases in SWS. Prefrontal atrophy occurs naturally as individuals age, and it has been demonstrated that older adults experience impairments in memory consolidation as their medial prefrontal cortices degrade. In monkeys, significant atrophy has been found as a result of neuroleptic or antipsychotic psychiatric medication. In older adults, instead of being transferred and stored in the neocortex during SWS, memories start to remain in the hippocampus where they were encoded, as evidenced by increased hippocampal activation compared to younger adults during recall tasks when subjects learned word associations, slept, and then were asked to recall the learned words.

Function
The original studies of Fuster and of Goldman-Rakic emphasized the fundamental ability of the prefrontal cortex to represent information not currently in the environment, and the central role of this function in creating the "mental sketch pad". Goldman-Rakic spoke of how this representational knowledge was used to intelligently guide thought, action and emotion, including the inhibition of inappropriate thoughts, distractions, actions, and feelings. In this way, working memory can be seen as fundamental to attention and behavioral inhibition. Fuster speaks of how this prefrontal ability allows the wedding of past to future, allowing both cross-temporal and cross-modal associations in the creation of goal-directed, perception-action cycles. This ability to represent underlies all other higher executive functions.

Shimamura proposed Dynamic Filtering Theory to describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is presumed to act as a high-level gating or filtering mechanism that enhances goal-directed activations and inhibits irrelevant activations. This filtering mechanism enables executive control at various levels of processing, including selecting, maintaining, updating, and rerouting activations. It has also been used to explain emotional regulation.

Miller and Cohen proposed an Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function, that arises from the original work of Goldman-Rakic and Fuster. The two theorize that “cognitive control stems from the active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal cortex that represents goals and means to achieve them. They provide bias signals to other brain structures whose net effect is to guide the flow of activity along neural pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task”. In essence, the two theorize that the prefrontal cortex guides the inputs and connections, which allows for cognitive control of our actions.

The prefrontal cortex is of significant importance when top-down processing is needed. Top-down processing by definition is when behavior is guided by internal states or intentions. According to the two, “The PFC is critical in situations when the mappings between sensory inputs, thoughts, and actions either are weakly established relative to other existing ones or are rapidly changing”. An example of this can be portrayed in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Subjects engaging in this task are instructed to sort cards according to the shape, color, or number of symbols appearing on them. The thought is that any given card can be associated with a number of actions and no single stimulus-response mapping will work. Human subjects with PFC damage are able to sort the card in the initial simple tasks, but unable to do so as the rules of classification change.

Miller and Cohen conclude that the implications of their theory can explain how much of a role the PFC has in guiding control of cognitive actions. In the researchers' own words, they claim that, “depending on their target of influence, representations in the PFC can function variously as attentional templates, rules, or goals by providing top-down bias signals to other parts of the brain that guide the flow of activity along the pathways needed to perform a task”.

Experimental data indicate a role for the prefrontal cortex in mediating normal sleep physiology, dreaming and sleep-deprivation phenomena.

When analyzing and thinking about attributes of other individuals, the medial prefrontal cortex is activated. However, it is not activated when contemplating about the characteristics of inanimate objects.

Studies using fMRI have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), specifically the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (amPFC), may modulate mimicry behavior. Neuroscientists are suggesting that social priming influences activity and processing in the amPFC, and that this area of the prefrontal cortex modulates mimicry responses and behavior.

As of recent, researchers have used neuroimaging techniques to find that along with the basal ganglia, the prefrontal cortex is involved with learning exemplars, which is part of the exemplar theory, one of the three main ways our mind categorizes things. The exemplar theory states that we categorize judgements by comparing it to a similar past experience within our stored memories.

A 2014 meta-analysis by Professor Nicole P.Yuan from the University of Arizona found that larger prefrontal cortex volume and greater PFC cortical thickness were associated with better executive performance.


Lebedev et al. experiment that dissociated representation of spatial attention from representation of spatial memory in prefrontal cortex.
A widely accepted theory regarding the function of the brain's prefrontal cortex is that it serves as a store of short-term memory. This idea was first formulated by Jacobsen, who reported in 1936 that damage to the primate prefrontal cortex caused short-term memory deficits. Karl Pribram and colleagues (1952) identified the part of the prefrontal cortex responsible for this deficit as area 46, also known as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). More recently, Goldman-Rakic and colleagues (1993) evoked short-term memory loss in localized regions of space by temporary inactivation of portions of the dlPFC. Once the concept of working memory (see also Baddeley's model of working memory) was established in contemporary neuroscience by Baddeley (1986), these neuropsychological findings contributed to the theory that the prefrontal cortex implements working memory and, in some extreme formulations, only working memory. In the 1990s this theory developed a wide following, and it became the predominant theory of PF function, especially for nonhuman primates. The concept of working memory used by proponents of this theory focused mostly on the short-term maintenance of information, and rather less on the manipulation or monitoring of such information or on the use of that information for decisions. Consistent with the idea that the prefrontal cortex functions predominantly in maintenance memory, delay-period activity in the PF has often been interpreted as a memory trace. (The phrase "delay-period activity" applies to neuronal activity that follows the transient presentation of an instruction cue and persists until a subsequent "go" or "trigger" signal.)

To explore alternative interpretations of delay-period activity in the prefrontal cortex, Lebedev et al. (2004) investigated the discharge rates of single prefrontal neurons as monkeys attended to a stimulus marking one location while remembering a different, unmarked location. Both locations served as potential targets of a saccadic eye movement. Although the task made intensive demands on short-term memory, the largest proportion of prefrontal neurons represented attended locations, not remembered ones. These findings showed that short-term memory functions cannot account for all, or even most, delay-period activity in the part of the prefrontal cortex explored. The authors suggested that prefrontal activity during the delay-period contributes more to the process of attentional selection (and selective attention) than to memory storage.

Executive function
The original studies of Fuster and of Goldman-Rakic emphasized the fundamental ability of the prefrontal cortex to represent information not currently in the environment, and the central role of this function in creating the "mental sketch pad". Goldman-Rakic spoke of how this representational knowledge was used to intelligently guide thought, action and emotion, including the inhibition of inappropriate thoughts, distractions, actions, and feelings. In this way, working memory can be seen as fundamental to attention and behavioral inhibition. Fuster speaks of how this prefrontal ability allows the wedding of past to future, allowing both cross-temporal and cross-modal associations in the creation of goal-directed, perception-action cycles. This ability to represent underlies all other higher executive functions.

Shimamura proposed Dynamic Filtering Theory to describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is presumed to act as a high-level gating or filtering mechanism that enhances goal-directed activations and inhibits irrelevant activations. This filtering mechanism enables executive control at various levels of processing, including selecting, maintaining, updating, and rerouting activations. It has also been used to explain emotional regulation.

Miller and Cohen proposed an Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function, that arises from the original work of Goldman-Rakic and Fuster. The two theorize that “cognitive control stems from the active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal cortex that represents goals and means to achieve them. They provide bias signals to other brain structures whose net effect is to guide the flow of activity along neural pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task”. In essence, the two theorize that the prefrontal cortex guides the inputs and connections, which allows for cognitive control of our actions.

The prefrontal cortex is of significant importance when top-down processing is needed. Top-down processing by definition is when behavior is guided by internal states or intentions. According to the two, “The PFC is critical in situations when the mappings between sensory inputs, thoughts, and actions either are weakly established relative to other existing ones or are rapidly changing”. An example of this can be portrayed in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Subjects engaging in this task are instructed to sort cards according to the shape, color, or number of symbols appearing on them. The thought is that any given card can be associated with a number of actions and no single stimulus-response mapping will work. Human subjects with PFC damage are able to sort the card in the initial simple tasks, but unable to do so as the rules of classification change.

Miller and Cohen conclude that the implications of their theory can explain how much of a role the PFC has in guiding control of cognitive actions. In the researchers' own words, they claim that, “depending on their target of influence, representations in the PFC can function variously as attentional templates, rules, or goals by providing top-down bias signals to other parts of the brain that guide the flow of activity along the pathways needed to perform a task”.

Experimental data indicate a role for the prefrontal cortex in mediating normal sleep physiology, dreaming and sleep-deprivation phenomena.

When analyzing and thinking about attributes of other individuals, the medial prefrontal cortex is activated. However, it is not activated when contemplating about the characteristics of inanimate objects.

Studies using fMRI have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), specifically the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (amPFC), may modulate mimicry behavior. Neuroscientists are suggesting that social priming influences activity and processing in the amPFC, and that this area of the prefrontal cortex modulates mimicry responses and behavior.

As of recent, researchers have used neuroimaging techniques to find that along with the basal ganglia, the prefrontal cortex is involved with learning exemplars, which is part of the exemplar theory, one of the three main ways our mind categorizes things. The exemplar theory states that we categorize judgements by comparing it to a similar past experience within our stored memories.

A 2014 meta-analysis by Professor Nicole P.Yuan from the University of Arizona found that larger prefrontal cortex volume and greater PFC cortical thickness were associated with better executive performance.

Attention and memory

Lebedev et al. experiment that dissociated representation of spatial attention from representation of spatial memory in prefrontal cortex.
A widely accepted theory regarding the function of the brain's prefrontal cortex is that it serves as a store of short-term memory. This idea was first formulated by Jacobsen, who reported in 1936 that damage to the primate prefrontal cortex caused short-term memory deficits. Karl Pribram and colleagues (1952) identified the part of the prefrontal cortex responsible for this deficit as area 46, also known as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). More recently, Goldman-Rakic and colleagues (1993) evoked short-term memory loss in localized regions of space by temporary inactivation of portions of the dlPFC. Once the concept of working memory (see also Baddeley's model of working memory) was established in contemporary neuroscience by Baddeley (1986), these neuropsychological findings contributed to the theory that the prefrontal cortex implements working memory and, in some extreme formulations, only working memory. In the 1990s this theory developed a wide following, and it became the predominant theory of PF function, especially for nonhuman primates. The concept of working memory used by proponents of this theory focused mostly on the short-term maintenance of information, and rather less on the manipulation or monitoring of such information or on the use of that information for decisions. Consistent with the idea that the prefrontal cortex functions predominantly in maintenance memory, delay-period activity in the PF has often been interpreted as a memory trace. (The phrase "delay-period activity" applies to neuronal activity that follows the transient presentation of an instruction cue and persists until a subsequent "go" or "trigger" signal.)

To explore alternative interpretations of delay-period activity in the prefrontal cortex, Lebedev et al. (2004) investigated the discharge rates of single prefrontal neurons as monkeys attended to a stimulus marking one location while remembering a different, unmarked location. Both locations served as potential targets of a saccadic eye movement. Although the task made intensive demands on short-term memory, the largest proportion of prefrontal neurons represented attended locations, not remembered ones. These findings showed that short-term memory functions cannot account for all, or even most, delay-period activity in the part of the prefrontal cortex explored. The authors suggested that prefrontal activity during the delay-period contributes more to the process of attentional selection (and selective attention) than to memory storage.

Clinical significance
See also: Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Structural growth
In the last few decades, brain imaging systems have been used to determine brain region volumes and nerve linkages. Several studies have indicated that reduced volume and interconnections of the frontal lobes with other brain regions is observed in patients diagnosed with mental disorders and prescribed potent antipsychotics; those subjected to repeated stressors; suicides; those incarcerated; criminals; sociopaths; those affected by lead poisoning; and daily male cannabis users (only 13 people were tested). It is believed that at least some of the human abilities to feel guilt or remorse, and to interpret reality, are dependent on a well-functioning prefrontal cortex. It is also widely believed that the size and number of connections in the prefrontal cortex relates directly to sentience, as the prefrontal cortex in humans occupies a far larger percentage of the brain than in any other animal. And it is theorized that, as the brain has tripled in size over five million years of human evolution, the prefrontal cortex has increased in size sixfold.

A review on executive functions in healthy exercising individuals noted that the left and right halves of the prefrontal cortex, which is divided by the medial longitudinal fissure, appear to become more interconnected in response to consistent aerobic exercise. Two reviews of structural neuroimaging research indicate that marked improvements in prefrontal and hippocampal gray matter volume occur in healthy adults that engage in medium intensity exercise for several months.

A functional neuroimaging review of meditation-based practices suggested that practicing mindfulness enhances prefrontal activation, which was noted to be correlated with increased well-being and reduced anxiety; however, the review noted the need for cohort studies in future research to better establish this.

History
Perhaps the seminal case in prefrontal cortex function is that of Phineas Gage, whose left frontal lobe was destroyed when a large iron rod was driven through his head in an 1848 accident. The standard presentation (e.g.) is that, although Gage retained normal memory, speech and motor skills, his personality changed radically: He became irritable, quick-tempered, and impatient—characteristics he did not previously display — so that friends described him as "no longer Gage"; and, whereas he had previously been a capable and efficient worker, afterward he was unable to complete tasks. However, careful analysis of primary evidence shows that descriptions of Gage's psychological changes are usually exaggerated when held against the description given by Gage's doctor, the most striking feature being that changes described years after Gage's death are far more dramatic than anything reported while he was alive.

Subsequent studies on patients with prefrontal injuries have shown that the patients verbalized what the most appropriate social responses would be under certain circumstances. Yet, when actually performing, they instead pursued behavior aimed at immediate gratification, despite knowing the longer-term results would be self-defeating.

The interpretation of this data indicates that not only are skills of comparison and understanding of eventual outcomes harbored in the prefrontal cortex but the prefrontal cortex (when functioning correctly) controls the mental option to delay immediate gratification for a better or more rewarding longer-term gratification result. This ability to wait for a reward is one of the key pieces that define optimal executive function of the human brain.

There is much current research devoted to understanding the role of the prefrontal cortex in neurological disorders. Many disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and ADHD, have been related to dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex, and thus this area of the brain offers the potential for new treatments of these conditions.[citation needed] Clinical trials have begun on certain drugs that have been shown to improve prefrontal cortex function, including guanfacine, which acts through the alpha-2A adrenergic receptor. A downstream target of this drug, the HCN channel, is one of the most recent areas of exploration in prefrontal cortex pharmacology.

The term "prefrontal" as describing a part of the brain appears to have been introduced by Richard Owen in 1868. For him, the prefrontal area was restricted to the anterior-most part of the frontal lobe (approximately corresponding to the frontal pole). It has been hypothesized that his choice of the term was based on the prefrontal bone present in most amphibians and reptiles.

Etymology
The term "prefrontal" as describing a part of the brain appears to have been introduced by Richard Owen in 1868. For him, the prefrontal area was restricted to the anterior-most part of the frontal lobe (approximately corresponding to the frontal pole). It has been hypothesized that his choice of the term was based on the prefrontal bone present in most amphibians and reptiles.

Additional images

Animation. Prefrontal cortex of left cerebral hemisphere (shown in red).


Front view.


Lateral view.


Medial view.

This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Prefrontal cortex, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.

•﴿سيرته﴾•
خلق آدم عليه السلام

أخبر الله سبحانه وتعالى ملائكتة بأنه سيخلق بشرا خليفة في الأرض - وخليفة هنا تعني على رأس ذرية يخلف بعضها بعضا. فقال الملائكة: (أَتَجْعَلُ فِيهَا مَن يُفْسِدُ فِيهَا وَيَسْفِكُ الدِّمَاء وَنَحْنُ نُسَبِّحُ بِحَمْدِكَ وَنُقَدِّسُ لَكَ).
ويوحي قول الملائكة هذا بأنه كان لديهم تجارب سابقة في الأرض , أو إلهام وبصيرة , يكشف لهم عن شيء من فطرة هذا المخلوق , ما يجعلهم يتوقعون أنه سيفسد في الأرض , وأنه سيسفك الدماء . . ثم هم - بفطرة الملائكة البريئة التي لا تتصور إلا الخير المطلق - يرون التسبيح بحمد الله والتقديس له , هو وحده الغاية للوجود . . وهو متحقق بوجودهم هم , يسبحون بحمد الله ويقدسون له, ويعبدونه ولا يفترون عن عبادته !
هذه الحيرة والدهشة التي ثارت في نفوس الملائكة بعد معرفة خبر خلق آدم.. أمر جائز على الملائكة، ولا ينقص من أقدارهم شيئا، لأنهم، رغم قربهم من الله، وعبادتهم له، وتكريمه لهم، لا يزيدون على كونهم عبيدا لله، لا يشتركون معه في علمه، ولا يعرفون حكمته الخافية، ولا يعلمون الغيب . لقد خفيت عليهم حكمة الله تعالى , في بناء هذه الأرض وعمارتها , وفي تنمية الحياة , وفي تحقيق إرادة الخالق في تطويرها وترقيتها وتعديلها , على يد خليفة الله في أرضه . هذا الذي قد يفسد أحيانا , وقد يسفك الدماء أحيانا . عندئذ جاءهم القرار من العليم بكل شيء , والخبير بمصائر الأمور: (إِنِّي أَعْلَمُ مَا لاَ تَعْلَمُونَ).
وما ندري نحن كيف قال الله أو كيف يقول للملائكة . وما ندري كذلك كيف يتلقى الملائكة عن الله ، فلا نعلم عنهم سوى ما بلغنا من صفاتهم في كتاب الله . ولا حاجة بنا إلى الخوض في شيء من هذا الذي لا طائل وراء الخوض فيه . إنما نمضي إلى مغزى القصة ودلالتها كما يقصها القرآن .
أدركت الملائكة أن الله سيجعل في الأرض خليفة.. وأصدر الله سبحانه وتعالى أمره إليهم تفصيلا، فقال إنه سيخلق بشرا من طين، فإذا سواه ونفخ فيه من روحه فيجب على الملائكة أن تسجد له، والمفهوم أن هذا سجود تكريم لا سجود عبادة، لأن سجود العبادة لا يكون إلا لله وحده.
جمع الله سبحانه وتعالى قبضة من تراب الأرض، فيها الأبيض والأسود والأصفر والأحمر - ولهذا يجيء الناس ألوانا مختلفة - ومزج الله تعالى التراب بالماء فصار صلصالا من حمأ مسنون. تعفن الطين وانبعثت له رائحة.. وكان إبليس يمر عليه فيعجب أي شيء يصير هذا الطين؟

﴿سجود الملائكة لآدم عليه السلام﴾

من هذا الصلصال خلق الله تعالى آدم .. سواه بيديه سبحانه ، ونفخ فيه من روحه سبحانه .. فتحرك جسد آدم ودبت فيه الحياة.. فتح آدم عينيه فرأى الملائكة كلهم ساجدين له .. ما عدا إبليس الذي كان يقف مع الملائكة، ولكنه لم يكن منهم، لم يسجد .. فهل كان إبليس من الملائكة ؟ الظاهر أنه لا . لأنه لو كان من الملائكة ما عصى . فالملائكة لا يعصون الله ما أمرهم ويفعلون ما يؤمرون . . وسيجيء أنه خلق من نار . والمأثور أن الملائكة خلق من نور . . ولكنه كان مع الملائكة وكان مأموراً بالسجود .
أما كيف كان السجود ؟ وأين ؟ ومتى ؟ كل ذلك في علم الغيب عند الله . ومعرفته لا تزيد في مغزى القصة شيئاً..
فوبّخ الله سبحانه وتعالى إبليس: (قَالَ يَا إِبْلِيسُ مَا مَنَعَكَ أَن تَسْجُدَ لِمَا خَلَقْتُ بِيَدَيَّ أَسْتَكْبَرْتَ أَمْ كُنتَ مِنَ الْعَالِينَ) . وبدلا من التوبة والأوبة إلى الله تبارك وتعالى، ردّ إبليس بمنطق يملأه الكبر والحسد: (قَالَ أَنَا خَيْرٌ مِّنْهُ خَلَقْتَنِي مِن نَّارٍ وَخَلَقْتَهُ مِن طِينٍ) . هنا صدر الأمر الإلهي العالي بطرد هذا المخلوق المتمرد القبيح: (قَالَ فَاخْرُجْ مِنْهَا فَإِنَّكَ رَجِيمٌ) وإنزال اللعنة عليه إلى يوم الدين. ولا نعلم ما المقصود بقوله سبحانه (مِنْهَا) فهل هي الجنة ؟ أم هل هي رحمة الله . . هذا وذلك جائز لكن الأرجح رحمة الله تعالى، فلم يكن إبليس في الجنة، وحتى آدم عليه السلام لم يكن في الجنة على الأرجح . ولا محل للجدل الكثير . فإنما هو الطرد واللعنة والغضب جزاء التمرد والتجرؤ على أمر الله الكريم .
قَالَ فَالْحَقُّ وَالْحَقَّ أَقُولُ (84) لَأَمْلَأَنَّ جَهَنَّمَ مِنكَ وَمِمَّن تَبِعَكَ مِنْهُمْ أَجْمَعِينَ (85) (ص)
هنا تحول الحسد إلى حقد . وإلى تصميم على الانتقام في نفس إبليس: (قَالَ رَبِّ فَأَنظِرْنِي إِلَى يَوْمِ يُبْعَثُونَ) . واقتضت مشيئة الله للحكمة المقدرة في علمه أن يجيبه إلى ما طلب , وأن يمنحه الفرصة التي أراد. فكشف الشيطان عن هدفه الذي ينفق فيه حقده: (قَالَ فَبِعِزَّتِكَ لَأُغْوِيَنَّهُمْ أَجْمَعِينَ) ويستدرك فيقول: (إِلَّا عِبَادَكَ مِنْهُمُ الْمُخْلَصِينَ) فليس للشيطان أي سلطان على عباد الله المؤمنين .
وبهذا تحدد منهجه وتحدد طريقه . إنه يقسم بعزة الله ليغوين جميع الآدميين . لا يستثني إلا من ليس له عليهم سلطان . لا تطوعاً منه ولكن عجزاً عن بلوغ غايته فيهم ! وبهذا يكشف عن الحاجز بينه وبين الناجين من غوايته وكيده ; والعاصم الذي يحول بينهم وبينه . إنه عبادة الله التي تخلصهم لله . هذا هو طوق النجاة . وحبل الحياة ! . . وكان هذا وفق إرادة الله وتقديره في الردى والنجاة . فأعلن - سبحانه - إرادته . وحدد المنهج والطريق: (لَأَمْلَأَنَّ جَهَنَّمَ مِنكَ وَمِمَّن تَبِعَكَ مِنْهُمْ أَجْمَعِينَ) .
فهي المعركة إذن بين الشيطان وأبناء آدم , يخوضونها على علم . والعاقبة مكشوفة لهم في وعد الله الصادق الواضح المبين . وعليهم تبعة ما يختارون لأنفسهم بعد هذا البيان . وقد شاءت رحمة الله ألا يدعهم جاهلين ولا غافلين . فأرسل إليهم المنذرين .

﴿تعليم آدم الأسماء﴾

ثم يروي القرآن الكريم قصة السر الإلهي العظيم الذي أودعه الله هذا الكائن البشري , وهو يسلمه مقاليد الخلافة: (وَعَلَّمَ آدَمَ الأَسْمَاء كُلَّهَا) . سر القدرة على الرمز بالأسماء للمسميات . سر القدرة على تسمية الأشخاص والأشياء بأسماء يجعلها - وهي ألفاظ منطوقة - رموزا لتلك الأشخاص والأشياء المحسوسة . وهي قدرة ذات قيمة كبرى في حياة الإنسان على الأرض . ندرك قيمتها حين نتصور الصعوبة الكبرى , لو لم يوهب الإنسان القدرة على الرمز بالأسماء للمسميات , والمشقة في التفاهم والتعامل , حين يحتاج كل فرد لكي يتفاهم مع الآخرين على شيء أن يستحضر هذا الشيء بذاته أمامهم ليتفاهموا بشأنه . . الشأن شأن نخلة فلا سبيل إلى التفاهم عليه إلا باستحضار جسم النخلة ! الشأن شأن جبل . فلا سبيل إلى التفاهم عليه إلا بالذهاب إلى الجبل ! الشأن شأن فرد من الناس فلا سبيل إلى التفاهم عليه إلا بتحضير هذا الفرد من الناس . . . إنها مشقة هائلة لا تتصور معها حياة ! وإن الحياة ما كانت لتمضي في طريقها لو لم يودع الله هذا الكائن القدرة على الرمز بالأسماء للمسميات .
أما الملائكة فلا حاجة لهم بهذه الخاصية , لأنها لا ضرورة لها في وظيفتهم . ومن ثم لم توهب لهم . فلما علم الله آدم هذا السر , وعرض عليهم ما عرض لم يعرفوا الأسماء . لم يعرفوا كيف يضعون الرموز اللفظية للأشياء والشخوص . . وجهروا أمام هذا العجز بتسبيح ربهم , والاعتراف بعجزهم , والإقرار بحدود علمهم , وهو ما علمهم . . ثم قام آدم بإخبارهم بأسماء الأشياء . ثم كان هذا التعقيب الذي يردهم إلى إدراك حكمة العليم الحكيم: (قَالَ أَلَمْ أَقُل لَّكُمْ إِنِّي أَعْلَمُ غَيْبَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ وَأَعْلَمُ مَا تُبْدُونَ وَمَا كُنتُمْ تَكْتُمُونَ) .
أراد الله تعالى أن يقول للملائكة إنه عَـلِـمَ ما أبدوه من الدهشة حين أخبرهم أنه سيخلق آدم، كما علم ما كتموه من الحيرة في فهم حكمة الله، كما علم ما أخفاه إبليس من المعصية والجحود.. أدرك الملائكة أن آدم هو المخلوق الذي يعرف.. وهذا أشرف شيء فيه.. قدرته على التعلم والمعرفة.. كما فهموا السر في أنه سيصبح خليفة في الأرض، يتصرف فيها ويتحكم فيها.. بالعلم والمعرفة.. معرفة بالخالق.. وهذا ما يطلق عليه اسم الإيمان أو الإسلام.. وعلم بأسباب استعمار الأرض وتغييرها والتحكم فيها والسيادة عليها.. ويدخل في هذا النطاق كل العلوم المادية على الأرض.
إن نجاح الإنسان في معرفة هذين الأمرين (الخالق وعلوم الأرض) يكفل له حياة أرقى.. فكل من الأمرين مكمل للآخر.

﴿سكن آدم وحواء في الجنة﴾

اختلف المفسرون في كيفية خلق حواء. ولا نعلم إن كان الله قد خلق حواء في نفس وقت خلق آدم أم بعده لكننا نعلم أن الله سبحانه وتعالى أسكنهما معا في الجنة. لا نعرف مكان هذه الجنة. فقد سكت القرآن عن مكانها واختلف المفسرون فيها على خمسة وجوه. قال بعضهم: إنها جنة المأوى، وأن مكانها السماء. ونفى بعضهم ذلك لأنها لو كانت جنة المأوى لحرم دخولها على إبليس ولما جاز فيها وقوع عصيان. وقال آخرون: إنها جنة المأوى خلقها الله لآدم وحواء. وقال أكثرهم: إنها جنة من جنات الأرض تقع في مكان مرتفع. وذهب فريق إلى التسليم في أمرها والتوقف.. ونحن نختار هذا الرأي. إن العبرة التي نستخلصها من مكانها لا تساوي شيئا بالقياس إلى العبرة التي تستخلص مما حدث فيها.
كان الله قد سمح لآدم وحواء بأن يقتربا من كل شيء وأن يستمتعا بكل شيء، ما عدا شجرة واحدة. فأطاع آدم وحواء أمر ربهما بالابتعاد عن الشجرة. غير أن آدم إنسان، والإنسان ينسى، وقلبه يتقلب، وعزمه ضعيف. واستغل إبليس إنسانية آدم وجمع كل حقده في صدره، واستغل تكوين آدم النفسي.. وراح يثير في نفسه ويوسوس إليه: (هَلْ أَدُلُّكَ عَلَى شَجَرَةِ الْخُلْدِ وَمُلْكٍ لَّا يَبْلَى) . وأقسم إبليس لآدم أنه صادق في نصحه لهم، ولم يكن آدم عليه السلام بفطرته السليمة يظن أن هنالك من يقسم بالله كذا، فضعف عزمه ونسي وأكل من الشجرة هو وحواء.
ليس صحيحا ما تذكره صحف اليهود من إغواء حواء لآدم وتحميلها مسئولية الأكل من الشجرة. إن نص القرآن لا يذكر حواء. إنما يذكر آدم -كمسئول عما حدث- عليه الصلاة والسلام. وهكذا أخطأ الشيطان وأخطأ آدم. أخطأ الشيطان بسبب الكبرياء، وأخطأ آدم بسبب الفضول.
لم يكد آدم ينتهي من الأكل حتى اكتشف أنه أصبح عار، وأن زوجته عارية. وبدأ هو وزوجته يقطعان أوراق الشجر لكي يغطي بهما كل واحد منهما جسده العاري. ولم تكن لآدم تجارب سابقة في العصيان، فلم يعرف كيف يتوب، فألهمه الله سبحانه وتعالى عبارات التوبة (قَالاَ رَبَّنَا ظَلَمْنَا أَنفُسَنَا وَإِن لَّمْ تَغْفِرْ لَنَا وَتَرْحَمْنَا لَنَكُونَنَّ مِنَ الْخَاسِرِينَ) (23) (الأعرف) وأصدر الله تبارك وتعالى أمره بالهبوط من الجنة.

﴿هبوط آدم وحواء إلى الأرض﴾

وهبط آدم وحواء إلى الأرض. واستغفرا ربهما وتاب إليه. فأدركته رحمة ربه التي تدركه دائما عندما يثوب إليها ويلوذ بها ... وأخبرهما الله أن الأرض هي مكانهما الأصلي.. يعيشان فيهما، ويموتان عليها، ويخرجان منها يوم البعث.
يتصور بعض الناس أن خطيئة آدم بعصيانه هي التي أخرجتنا من الجنة. ولولا هذه الخطيئة لكنا اليوم هناك. وهذا التصور غير منطقي لأن الله تعالى حين شاء أن يخلق آدم قال للملائكة: "إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً" ولم يقل لهما إني جاعل في الجنة خليفة. لم يكن هبوط آدم إلى الأرض هبوط إهانة، وإنما كان هبوط كرامة كما يقول العارفون بالله. كان الله تعالى يعلم أن آدم وحواء سيأكلان من الشجرة. ويهبطان إلى الأرض. أما تجربة السكن في الجنة فكانت ركنا من أركان الخلافة في الأرض. ليعلم آدم وحواء ويعلم جنسهما من بعدهما أن الشيطان طرد الأبوين من الجنة، وأن الطريق إلى الجنة يمر بطاعة الله وعداء الشيطان.

﴿هابيل وقابيل﴾

لا يذكر لنا المولى عزّ وجلّ في كتابه الكريم الكثير عن حياة آدم عليه السلام في الأرض. لكن القرآن الكريم يروي قصة ابنين من أبناء آدم هما هابيل وقابيل. حين وقعت أول جريمة قتل في الأرض. وكانت قصتهما كالتالي.

كانت حواء تلد في البطن الواحد ابنا وبنتا. وفي البطن التالي ابنا وبنتا. فيحل زواج ابن البطن الأول من البطن الثاني.. ويقال أن قابيل كان يريد زوجة هابيل لنفسه.. فأمرهما آدم أن يقدما قربانا، فقدم كل واحد منهما قربانا، فتقبل الله من هابيل ولم يتقبل من قابيل. قال تعالى في سورة (المائدة):
وَاتْلُ عَلَيْهِمْ نَبَأَ ابْنَيْ آدَمَ بِالْحَقِّ إِذْ قَرَّبَا قُرْبَانًا فَتُقُبِّلَ مِن أَحَدِهِمَا وَلَمْ يُتَقَبَّلْ مِنَ الآخَرِ قَالَ لَأَقْتُلَنَّكَ قَالَ إِنَّمَا يَتَقَبَّلُ اللّهُ مِنَ الْمُتَّقِينَ (27) لَئِن بَسَطتَ إِلَيَّ يَدَكَ لِتَقْتُلَنِي مَا أَنَاْ بِبَاسِطٍ يَدِيَإِلَيْكَ لَأَقْتُلَكَ إِنِّي أَخَافُ اللّهَ رَبَّ الْعَالَمِينَ (28) (المائدة)
لاحظ كيف ينقل إلينا الله تعالى كلمات القتيل الشهيد، ويتجاهل تماما كلمات القاتل. عاد القاتل يرفع يده مهددا.. قال القتيل في هدوء:
إِنِّي أُرِيدُ أَن تَبُوءَ بِإِثْمِي وَإِثْمِكَ فَتَكُونَ مِنْ أَصْحَابِ النَّارِ وَذَلِكَ جَزَاء الظَّالِمِينَ (29) (المائدة)
انتهى الحوار بينهما وانصرف الشرير وترك الطيب مؤقتا. بعد أيام.. كان الأخ الطيب نائما وسط غابة مشجرة.. فقام إليه أخوه قابيل فقتله. قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: "لا تقتل نفس ظلما إلا كان على ابن آدم الأول كفل من دمها لأنه كان أول من سن القتل". جلس القاتل أمام شقيقه الملقى على الأرض. كان هذا الأخ القتيل أول إنسان يموت على الأرض.. ولم يكن دفن الموتى شيئا قد عرف بعد. وحمل الأخ جثة شقيقه وراح يمشي بها.. ثم رأى القاتل غرابا حيا بجانب جثة غراب ميت. وضع الغراب الحي الغراب الميت على الأرض وساوى أجنحته إلى جواره وبدأ يحفر الأرض بمنقاره ووضعه برفق في القبر وعاد يهيل عليه التراب.. بعدها طار في الجو وهو يصرخ.
اندلع حزن قابيل على أخيه هابيل كالنار فأحرقه الندم. اكتشف أنه وهو الأسوأ والأضعف، قد قتل الأفضل والأقوى. نقص أبناء آدم واحدا. وكسب الشيطان واحدا من أبناء آدم. واهتز جسد القاتل ببكاء عنيف ثم أنشب أظافره في الأرض وراح يحفر قبر شقيقه.
قال آدم حين عرف القصة: (هَذَا مِنْ عَمَلِ الشَّيْطَانِ إِنَّهُ عَدُوٌّ مُّضِلٌّ مُّبِينٌ) وحزن حزنا شديدا على خسارته في ولديه. مات أحدهما، وكسب الشيطان الثاني. صلى آدم على ابنه، وعاد إلى حياته على الأرض: إنسانا يعمل ويشقى ليصنع خبزه. ونبيا يعظ أبنائه وأحفاده ويحدثهم عن الله ويدعوهم إليه، ويحكي لهم عن إبليس ويحذرهم منه. ويروي لهم قصته هو نفسه معه، ويقص لهم قصته مع ابنه الذي دفعه لقتل شقيقه.

﴿موت آدم عليه السلام﴾

وكبر آدم. ومرت سنوات وسنوات.. وعن فراش موته، يروي أبي بن كعب، فقال: إن آدم لما حضره الموت قال لبنيه: أي بني، إني أشتهي من ثمار الجنة. قال: فذهبوا يطلبون له، فاستقبلتهم الملائكة ومعهم أكفانه وحنوطه، ومعهم الفؤوس والمساحي والمكاتل، فقالوا لهم: يا بني آدم ما تريدون وما تطلبون؟ أو ما تريدون وأين تطلبون؟ قالوا: أبونا مريض واشتهى من ثمار الجنة، فقالوا لهم: ارجعوا فقد قضي أبوكم. فجاءوا فلما رأتهم حواء عرفتهم فلاذت بآدم، فقال: إليك عني فإني إنما أتيت من قبلك، فخلي بيني وبين ملائكة ربي عز وجل. فقبضوه وغسلوه وكفنوه وحنطوه، وحفروا له ولحدوه وصلوا عليه ثم أدخلوه قبره فوضعوه في قبره، ثم حثوا عليه، ثم قالوا: يا بني آدم هذه سنتكم.
وفي موته يروي الترمذي: حدثنا عبد بن حميد، حدثنا أبو نعيم، حدثنا هشام بن سعد، عن زيد بن أسلم، عن أبي صالح، عن أبي هريرة قال: قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم : "لما خلق الله آدم مسح ظهره، فسقط من ظهره كل نسمة هو خالقها من ذريته إلى يوم القيامة، وجعل بين عيني كل إنسان منهم وبيصاً من نور، ثم عرضهم على آدم فقال: أي رب من هؤلاء؟ قال: هؤلاء ذريتك، فرأى رجلاً فأعجبه وبيص ما بين عينيه، فقال: أي رب من هذا؟ قال هذا رجل من آخر الأمم من ذريتك يقال له داود، قال: رب وكم جعلت عمره؟ قال ستين سنة، قال: أي رب زده من عمري أربعين سنة. فلما انقضى عمر آدم جاءه ملك الموت، قال: أو لم يبق من عمري أربعون سنة؟ قال: أو لم تعطها ابنك داود؟ قال فجحد فجحدت ذريته، ونسي آدم فنسيت ذريته، وخطىء آدم فخطئت ذريته".